Biracial Adult Children Raised by White Mothers: The Development of Racial Identity and Role of Racial Socialization

• Main Author: McKinney, Nicole Sara
• Format: Dissertation
• Language: English
• Subjects: black studies; developmental psychology; ethnic studies; individual & family studies
• ISBN: 133992062X; 9781339920627

In the United States (U.S.), the birthrates of Biracial offspring have significantly increased among partnered/married White women and Black men. Racial identification has been historically categorized as "either/or" in the U.S. versus "both/and" which can make it difficult for Biracial individuals to racially identify. Prior research has focused primarily on racial identity development among younger Biracial children and youth and has not examined Biracial identity development across the lifespan. Moreover, few researchers have examined the influence of White mothers on their Biracial offspring's racial identity development and racial socialization process. In order to fill these gaps, this dyadic qualitative phenomenological dissertation study was designed to retrospectively examine the racial identity and parental socialization experiences of eight Biracially identified male and four female adults and their White mothers.
This study followed the stages of transcendental phenomenology as described by Moustakas (1994). First a demographic self-report survey was completed (one for the adult child and one for the White mother) and a skin color scale that only adult Biracial children completed. Then, using a semi-structured interview guide eight Biracial adult children (4 females; 4 males who reported lighter skin and between 18 to 42 years old) and their White mothers were first interviewed separately (30 minutes each) and then interviewed together as a dyad. Interviews, emails, and telephone calls were transcribed verbatim; the 24 transcriptions were analyzed using conventional content analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) and MAXQDA to identify dominant themes. During the second stage of analysis, findings were examined through the lenses of Biracial identity development (Poston, 1990), parental racial socialization (Hughes and Johnson, 2001), and Rockquemore and Laszloffy's (2005) continuum of Biracial identity perspective.
The following seven dominant themes emerged for the eight adult Biracial individual interviews: 1) Influence of White Mother on Racial Identity, 2) Colorism, 3) Racial Landscape of Biracials, 4) Views on Race, 5) Preference/Favoring Whiteness -- Physical Attributes, 6) How Biracial children Deal with racism and, 7) Acceptance. The following four dominant themes emerged for the eight White mother interviews: 1) What Race is Your Child?, 2) Colorism, 3) Cultural Collision and, 4) Parenting a Biracial Child. The following four main themes emerged for the eight family interviews: 1) Responsibility and Recommendations for Socializing Biracials, 2) Closeness of Mother-Child Relationship, 3) Colorism and, 4) How the Interracial Family Functions.
Noteworthy, despite reporting a close relationship to their Biracial children, most White mothers did not initiate open discussions about race at home or engage in active parental racial socialization. Biracial adult children described reactive socialization experiences (first racial encounters in the community) and most reported not sharing these experiences with their White mothers. Instead they tended to reach out to teachers, siblings, peers, or processed these racial encounters by themselves. Despite not having open conversations about race at home or active parental racial socialization, there were stories of resiliency, love, and connection that can help to inform other interracial families, the field of family therapy, and training programs.
Findings suggest helping White mothers of Biracial children engage in proactive, creative (versus reactive) racial socialization practices could help to buffer children from negative racial encounters out in the community. Providers could inform couples about racial identity development, how to openly initiate and talk to Biracial children about being both Black and White, and how to facilitate positive self-esteem. Training programs could also prepare culturally sensitive therapists to work with Biracial families.
Many cross sectional studies with Biracial individuals and their parents have been conducted (Biracial children, adolescents, and adults), however, to date no longitudinal studies have been conducted in real time with Biracial children and their White mothers over the life cycle. Longitudinal prospective studies with White mothers and their young Biracial children could help the field develop a better understanding of parental racial socialization practices, as well as Biracial identity development over time.