Characterization and Assessment of Dermal and Inhalable Nickel Exposures in Nickel Production and Primary User Industries

• Published in: The Annals of occupational hygiene Vol. 54; no. 1; pp. 8 - 22
• Main Authors: Hughson, G. W., Galea, K. S., Heim, K. E.
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Oxford Oxford University Press 01-01-2010
• Subjects: Air Pollutants, Occupational - analysis; Air Pollutants, Occupational - standards; Air Pollution, Indoor - statistics & numerical data; Alloys - analysis; Biological and medical sciences; Chemical and industrial products toxicology. Toxic occupational diseases; dermal exposure; dermal exposure assessment; dermal exposure measurement; Dust - analysis; EASE; Environmental Monitoring; EU chemical regulation; Europe; exposure assessment for existing substances; Humans; inhalable dust; Inhalation Exposure - analysis; Inhalation Exposure - standards; Inhalation Exposure - statistics & numerical data; Limit of Detection; Medical sciences; Metallurgy; Metals and various inorganic compounds; nickel; Nickel - analysis; Nickel - standards; Occupational Exposure - analysis; Occupational Exposure - statistics & numerical data; Protective Devices - utilization; Risk Assessment; Skin Absorption; Solubility; Toxicology; Trace Elements - analysis; Workplace - statistics & numerical data; Europe; dermal exposure assessment; nickel; exposure assessment for existing substances; dermal exposure; dermal exposure measurement; inhalable dust; EASE; EU chemical regulation; Work place; Occupational exposure; Percutaneous route; Concentration measurement; Production; Quantitative analysis; Human; Evaluation; Metallurgical industry; Transition metal; Refinery; Inhalation; Dust; Nickel; Skin; Regulation; Occupational medicine; Topical administration
• ISSN: 0003-4878; 1475-3162; 1475-3162
• DOI: 10.1093/annhyg/mep068

The aim of this study was to measure the levels of nickel in the skin contaminant layer of workers involved in specific processes and tasks within the primary nickel production and primary nickel user industries. Dermal exposure samples were collected using moist wipes to recover surface contamination from defined areas of skin. These were analysed for soluble and insoluble nickel species. Personal samples of inhalable dust were also collected to determine the corresponding inhalable nickel exposures. The air samples were analysed for total inhalable dust and then for soluble, sulfidic, metallic, and oxidic nickel species. The workplace surveys were carried out in five different workplaces, including three nickel refineries, a stainless steel plant, and a powder metallurgy plant, all of which were located in Europe. Nickel refinery workers involved with electrolytic nickel recovery processes had soluble dermal nickel exposure of 0.34 μg cm−2 [geometric mean (GM)] to the hands and forearms. The GM of soluble dermal nickel exposure for workers involved in packing nickel salts (nickel chloride hexahydrate, nickel sulphate hexahydrate, and nickel hydroxycarbonate) was 0.61 μg cm−2. Refinery workers involved in packing nickel metal powders and end-user powder operatives in magnet production had the highest dermal exposure (GM = 2.59 μg cm−2 soluble nickel). The hands, forearms, face, and neck of these workers all received greater dermal nickel exposure compared with the other jobs included in this study. The soluble nickel dermal exposures for stainless steel production workers were at or slightly above the limit of detection (0.02 μg cm−2 soluble nickel). The highest inhalable nickel concentrations were observed for the workers involved in nickel powder packing (GM = 0.77 mg m−3), although the soluble component comprised only 2% of the total nickel content. The highest airborne soluble nickel exposures were associated with refineries using electrolytic processes for nickel recovery (GM = 0.04 mg m−3 total nickel, containing 82% soluble nickel) and those jobs involving contact with soluble nickel compounds (GM = 0.02 mg m−3 total nickel content, containing 76% soluble nickel). The stainless steel workers were exposed to low concentrations of relatively insoluble airborne nickel species (GM = 0.03 mg m−3 total nickel, containing 1% soluble nickel). A statistically significant correlation was observed between dermal exposures for all anatomical areas across all tasks. In addition, the dermal and inhalable (total) nickel exposures were similarly associated. Overall, dermal exposures to nickel, nickel compounds, and nickel alloys were relatively low. However, exposures were highly variable, which can be explained by the inconsistent use of personal protective equipment, varying working practices, and different standards of automation and engineering controls within each exposure category.