Assessing the neutralisation, wet deposition and source contributions of the precipitation chemistry over Europe during 2000–2017

• Published in: Environmental sciences Europe Vol. 31; no. 1; pp. 1 - 15
• Main Authors: Keresztesi, Ágnes, Birsan, Marius-Victor, Nita, Ion-Andrei, Bodor, Zsolt, Szép, Róbert
• Format: Journal Article
• Language: English
• Published: Berlin/Heidelberg Springer Berlin Heidelberg 01-08-2019; Springer Nature B.V
• Subjects: Acidity; Air pollution; Air pollution measurements; Anthropogenic factors; Atmospheric chemistry; Calcium; Calcium ions; Chemical composition; Chemical precipitation; Chemical speciation; Chemistry; Correlation analysis; Deposition; Dominance; Earth and Environmental Science; Economic development; Ecotoxicology; Environment; Environmental law; Environmental legislation; Environmental protection; Human influences; Legislation; Magnesium; Mathematical analysis; Organic chemistry; pH effects; Pollution; Principal components analysis; Rain water; Rainfall; Regional development; Terrestrial environments; Wet deposition; Europe; Source contribution; Rainwater; Acid rain; Chemical composition; Neutralisation; Wet deposition
• ISSN: 2190-4707; 2190-4715
• DOI: 10.1186/s12302-019-0234-9

Background
The chemical composition of precipitation was assessed in 27 European countries from 2000 to 2017, offering a general point of view on the rainwater chemistry in Europe, contributing to a larger understanding of air pollution and atmospheric chemistry.
Results
The volume-weighted mean concentrations (VWM) were calculated, showing the relative dominance of SO
4
2−
and Cl
−
, explaining the acidic and slightly acidic pH values that ranged from 4.19 to 5.82 over Europe. The VWM concentrations of ionic species measured in rainwater usually followed the SO
4
2
−
 > Cl
−
 > Na
+
 > NH
4
+
 > NO
3
−
 > H
+
 > Ca
2+
 > Mg
2+
 > K
+
 > HCO
3
−
downward order, with small exceptions, depending on the industrial activity or legal framework of a particular area. Fractional acidity showed that ~ 69% of the inorganic acidity in precipitation is neutralised, whilst neutralisation factors showed that Na
+
and NH
4
+
contributed the most to the neutralising process. The relationship between acidic and neutralising compounds was further examined by calculating the ionic ratios. Wet deposition rates showed the dominance of acidic compounds over neutralising ones, reflecting the climatic influences and the local and regional economic characteristics of different regions from Europe. Origins of major ions in rainwater were examined using the sea salt and non-sea salt fractions, crustal and marine enrichment factors, correlation analysis and the Principal Component Analysis, showing the significant influence of anthropogenic sources (industry, agriculture, traffic). Natural sources (maritime, terrestrial) also play a major role in influencing the precipitation chemistry of the European continent.
Conclusions
The main conclusion of this study regarding the precipitation chemistry of the European continent during the studied period is represented by the relative homogenous distribution of the analysed chemical species, which is most likely due to the unitary economic development and to the implementation of common European policies in the field of environmental protection. Since the pH is still acidic due to the anthropogenic emissions, more attention should be given to the implementation of environmental legislation, especially in non-European Union countries or in countries that joined recently.