Severity of topsoil compaction controls the impact of skid trails on soil ecological processes

Skid trails are a major management‐induced disturbance in temperate forest ecosystems with considerable impact on soil ecological processes that are so far poorly understood. In German forests, skid trails comprise 10%–20% of the forest area that is potentially affected by soil compaction through he...

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Published in:	The Journal of applied ecology Vol. 61; no. 8; pp. 1817 - 1828
Main Authors:	Klein‐Raufhake, Theresa, Hölzel, Norbert, Schaper, Jens Jakob, Hortmann, Anja, Elmer, Michael, Fornfeist, Max, Linnemann, Britta, Meyer, Michael, Rentemeister, Katharina, Santora, Lea, Wöllecke, Jens, Hamer, Ute
Format:	Journal Article
Language:	English
Published:	Oxford Blackwell Publishing Ltd 01-08-2024
Subjects:	Bulk density Carbon Carbon dioxide Carbon sequestration Ecosystem management Enzymatic activity Enzymes Forest ecosystems Forest management Forests Frost microbial biomass Microorganisms Mountain forests Mountain regions Mountainous areas Mountains nutrient cycling Nutrient loss Organic carbon Parameter identification skidding Soil analysis Soil chemistry Soil compaction Soil conditions Soil investigations Soil moisture Spatial discrimination Spatial resolution Substrates temperate forest Temperate forests Terrestrial ecosystems Tires Topsoil Trails
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Abstract	Skid trails are a major management‐induced disturbance in temperate forest ecosystems with considerable impact on soil ecological processes that are so far poorly understood. In German forests, skid trails comprise 10%–20% of the forest area that is potentially affected by soil compaction through heavy machinery. We systematically investigated the influence of skid trails on physical, chemical and microbiological soil parameters at 84 paired plots across four Central European forest types. In low mountain forests with steeper topography, skid trails had more drastic effects than in lowland forests. Skid trails in low mountain areas showed a decrease in the C to N ratio of microbial biomass (MBC/MBN), as well as increased microbial (MBC/SOC) and enzyme activities leading to faster carbon turnover (lower C/N, EOC/EN) and increased CO2 losses (CO2/SOC) from the soil. The overall effects of the skid trails in lowland forests were small. On base‐poor soils, we found an increase in the MBC/MBN ratio, while skid trails in base‐rich lowland soils showed a reduction in CO2/SOC, suggesting a proportional increase in soil carbon storage. Regardless of region‐specific effects, the relative increase in the bulk density of the fine soil was identified as a ‘golden trait’ that determined the effects of skid trails on many soil parameters, as shown by negative correlations with SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC and CO2/SOC and positive ones with the activities of certain hydrolytic enzymes. Synthesis and applications: Our data clearly showed that carbon conversion processes and soil respiration leading to significant carbon and nutrient losses increased significantly on skid trails in low mountain regions with relatively steep slopes, which was in sharp contrast to lowland sites. The strong context dependence of our findings suggests that the mapping of soil conditions in terms of slope, substrate and moisture with high spatial resolution is mandatory to assess the vulnerability of sites to soil compaction by heavy machinery. Based on such vulnerability analysis, negative impacts can be minimised through the designation of permanently fixed skid trails, technical adaptation of vehicles (e.g. wide base tyres) as well as careful planning and timing of management operations that should be restricted to dry weather and soil moisture conditions or periods of frost. Zusammenfassung Rückegassen sind eine wichtige bewirtschaftungsbedingte Störung in Waldökosystemen gemäßigter Breiten. Ihre Auswirkungen auf bodenökologische Prozesse sind bisher nur unzureichend verstanden. In deutschen Wäldern machen Rückegassen 10%–20% der Waldfläche aus, welche durch die Befahrung mit schweren Maschinen potenziell von Bodenverdichtung betroffen ist. Auf 84 gepaarten Plots in vier mitteleuropäischen Waldtypen untersuchten wir systematisch den Einfluss von Rückegassen auf physikalische, chemische und mikrobiologische Bodenparameter. In Mittelgebirgswäldern mit einer steileren Topographie hatten Rückegassen drastischere Auswirkungen als in Wäldern im Flachland. Rückegassen in Mittelgebirgsregionen zeigten eine Abnahme des C/N‐Verhältnisses der mikrobiellen Biomasse (MBC/MBN) sowie erhöhte mikrobielle (MBC/SOC) und enzymatische Aktivitäten, was zu einem schnelleren Kohlenstoffumsatz (geringeres C/N, EOC/EN) und erhöhten CO2‐Verlusten (CO2/SOC) aus dem Boden führte. Die Auswirkungen von Rückegassen in Tieflandwäldern waren insgesamt gering. Auf basenarmen Böden wurde ein Anstieg des MBC/MBN‐Verhältnisses festgestellt, während Rückegassen in basenreichen Tieflandböden eine Verringerung des CO2/SOC‐Verhältnisses zeigten. Letzteres lässt auf einen proportionalen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffspeicherung im Boden schließen. Unabhängig von regionsspezifischen Effekten wurde die relative Erhöhung der Lagerungsdichte des Feinbodens als „golden trait “identifiziert, welche die Auswirkungen von Rückegassen auf viele Bodenparameter bestimmt (z.B. negative Korrelationen mit SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC und CO2/SOC sowie positive Korrelation mit den Aktivitäten bestimmter hydrolytischer Enzyme). Synthese und Anwendung: Unsere Daten zeigten eindrücklich, dass die Kohlenstoffumwandlungsprozesse und die Bodenatmung, welche zu erheblichen Kohlenstoff‐ und Nährstoffverlusten führen, auf Rückegassen in Mittelgebirgsregionen mit relativ steilen Hängen signifikant erhöht waren, was in starkem Kontrast zu Standorten im Flachland stand. Die starke Kontextabhängigkeit unserer Ergebnisse legt nahe, dass die kleinräumliche Erfassung der Bodenbedingungen in Bezug auf Neigung, Substrat und Feuchtigkeit zwingend erforderlich ist, um die Anfälligkeit von Standorten für Bodenverdichtung durch schwere Maschinen zu bewerten. Auf Grundlage solch einer Anfälligkeitsanalyse können die negativen Auswirkungen durch die Ausweisung von dauerhaft angelegten Rückegassen, die technische Anpassung der Fahrzeuge sowie eine sorgfältige Planung und zeitliche Abstimmung der Bewirtschaftungsmaßnahmen, welche auf trockene Wetter‐ und Bodenfeuchtebedingungen oder Frostperioden beschränkt sein sollten, minimiert werden. Our data clearly showed that carbon conversion processes and soil respiration leading to significant carbon and nutrient losses increased significantly on skid trails in low mountain regions with relatively steep slopes, which was in sharp contrast to lowland sites. The strong context dependence of our findings suggests that the mapping of soil conditions in terms of slope, substrate and moisture with high spatial resolution is mandatory to assess the vulnerability of sites to soil compaction by heavy machinery. Based on such vulnerability analysis, negative impacts can be minimised through the designation of permanently fixed skid trails, technical adaptation of vehicles (e.g. wide base tyres) as well as careful planning and timing of management operations that should be restricted to dry weather and soil moisture conditions or periods of frost.
AbstractList	Skid trails are a major management‐induced disturbance in temperate forest ecosystems with considerable impact on soil ecological processes that are so far poorly understood. In German forests, skid trails comprise 10%–20% of the forest area that is potentially affected by soil compaction through heavy machinery. We systematically investigated the influence of skid trails on physical, chemical and microbiological soil parameters at 84 paired plots across four Central European forest types.In low mountain forests with steeper topography, skid trails had more drastic effects than in lowland forests. Skid trails in low mountain areas showed a decrease in the C to N ratio of microbial biomass (MBC/MBN), as well as increased microbial (MBC/SOC) and enzyme activities leading to faster carbon turnover (lower C/N, EOC/EN) and increased CO2 losses (CO2/SOC) from the soil.The overall effects of the skid trails in lowland forests were small. On base‐poor soils, we found an increase in the MBC/MBN ratio, while skid trails in base‐rich lowland soils showed a reduction in CO2/SOC, suggesting a proportional increase in soil carbon storage.Regardless of region‐specific effects, the relative increase in the bulk density of the fine soil was identified as a ‘golden trait’ that determined the effects of skid trails on many soil parameters, as shown by negative correlations with SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC and CO2/SOC and positive ones with the activities of certain hydrolytic enzymes.Synthesis and applications: Our data clearly showed that carbon conversion processes and soil respiration leading to significant carbon and nutrient losses increased significantly on skid trails in low mountain regions with relatively steep slopes, which was in sharp contrast to lowland sites. The strong context dependence of our findings suggests that the mapping of soil conditions in terms of slope, substrate and moisture with high spatial resolution is mandatory to assess the vulnerability of sites to soil compaction by heavy machinery. Based on such vulnerability analysis, negative impacts can be minimised through the designation of permanently fixed skid trails, technical adaptation of vehicles (e.g. wide base tyres) as well as careful planning and timing of management operations that should be restricted to dry weather and soil moisture conditions or periods of frost. Skid trails are a major management‐induced disturbance in temperate forest ecosystems with considerable impact on soil ecological processes that are so far poorly understood. In German forests, skid trails comprise 10%–20% of the forest area that is potentially affected by soil compaction through heavy machinery. We systematically investigated the influence of skid trails on physical, chemical and microbiological soil parameters at 84 paired plots across four Central European forest types. In low mountain forests with steeper topography, skid trails had more drastic effects than in lowland forests. Skid trails in low mountain areas showed a decrease in the C to N ratio of microbial biomass (MBC/MBN), as well as increased microbial (MBC/SOC) and enzyme activities leading to faster carbon turnover (lower C/N, EOC/EN) and increased CO 2 losses (CO 2 /SOC) from the soil. The overall effects of the skid trails in lowland forests were small. On base‐poor soils, we found an increase in the MBC/MBN ratio, while skid trails in base‐rich lowland soils showed a reduction in CO 2 /SOC, suggesting a proportional increase in soil carbon storage. Regardless of region‐specific effects, the relative increase in the bulk density of the fine soil was identified as a ‘golden trait’ that determined the effects of skid trails on many soil parameters, as shown by negative correlations with SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC and CO 2 /SOC and positive ones with the activities of certain hydrolytic enzymes. Synthesis and applications : Our data clearly showed that carbon conversion processes and soil respiration leading to significant carbon and nutrient losses increased significantly on skid trails in low mountain regions with relatively steep slopes, which was in sharp contrast to lowland sites. The strong context dependence of our findings suggests that the mapping of soil conditions in terms of slope, substrate and moisture with high spatial resolution is mandatory to assess the vulnerability of sites to soil compaction by heavy machinery. Based on such vulnerability analysis, negative impacts can be minimised through the designation of permanently fixed skid trails, technical adaptation of vehicles (e.g. wide base tyres) as well as careful planning and timing of management operations that should be restricted to dry weather and soil moisture conditions or periods of frost. Rückegassen sind eine wichtige bewirtschaftungsbedingte Störung in Waldökosystemen gemäßigter Breiten. Ihre Auswirkungen auf bodenökologische Prozesse sind bisher nur unzureichend verstanden. In deutschen Wäldern machen Rückegassen 10%–20% der Waldfläche aus, welche durch die Befahrung mit schweren Maschinen potenziell von Bodenverdichtung betroffen ist. Auf 84 gepaarten Plots in vier mitteleuropäischen Waldtypen untersuchten wir systematisch den Einfluss von Rückegassen auf physikalische, chemische und mikrobiologische Bodenparameter. In Mittelgebirgswäldern mit einer steileren Topographie hatten Rückegassen drastischere Auswirkungen als in Wäldern im Flachland. Rückegassen in Mittelgebirgsregionen zeigten eine Abnahme des C/N‐Verhältnisses der mikrobiellen Biomasse (MBC/MBN) sowie erhöhte mikrobielle (MBC/SOC) und enzymatische Aktivitäten, was zu einem schnelleren Kohlenstoffumsatz (geringeres C/N, EOC/EN) und erhöhten CO 2 ‐Verlusten (CO 2 /SOC) aus dem Boden führte. Die Auswirkungen von Rückegassen in Tieflandwäldern waren insgesamt gering. Auf basenarmen Böden wurde ein Anstieg des MBC/MBN‐Verhältnisses festgestellt, während Rückegassen in basenreichen Tieflandböden eine Verringerung des CO 2 /SOC‐Verhältnisses zeigten. Letzteres lässt auf einen proportionalen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffspeicherung im Boden schließen. Unabhängig von regionsspezifischen Effekten wurde die relative Erhöhung der Lagerungsdichte des Feinbodens als „golden trait “identifiziert, welche die Auswirkungen von Rückegassen auf viele Bodenparameter bestimmt (z.B. negative Korrelationen mit SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC und CO 2 /SOC sowie positive Korrelation mit den Aktivitäten bestimmter hydrolytischer Enzyme). Synthese und Anwendung : Unsere Daten zeigten eindrücklich, dass die Kohlenstoffumwandlungsprozesse und die Bodenatmung, welche zu erheblichen Kohlenstoff‐ und Nährstoffverlusten führen, auf Rückegassen in Mittelgebirgsregionen mit relativ steilen Hängen signifikant erhöht waren, was in starkem Kontrast zu Standorten im Flachland stand. Die starke Kontextabhängigkeit unserer Ergebnisse legt nahe, dass die kleinräumliche Erfassung der Bodenbedingungen in Bezug auf Neigung, Substrat und Feuchtigkeit zwingend erforderlich ist, um die Anfälligkeit von Standorten für Bodenverdichtung durch schwere Maschinen zu bewerten. Auf Grundlage solch einer Anfälligkeitsanalyse können die negativen Auswirkungen durch die Ausweisung von dauerhaft angelegten Rückegassen, die technische Anpassung der Fahrzeuge sowie eine sorgfältige Planung und zeitliche Abstimmung der Bewirtschaftungsmaßnahmen, welche auf trockene Wetter‐ und Bodenfeuchtebedingungen oder Frostperioden beschränkt sein sollten, minimiert werden. Skid trails are a major management‐induced disturbance in temperate forest ecosystems with considerable impact on soil ecological processes that are so far poorly understood. In German forests, skid trails comprise 10%–20% of the forest area that is potentially affected by soil compaction through heavy machinery. We systematically investigated the influence of skid trails on physical, chemical and microbiological soil parameters at 84 paired plots across four Central European forest types. In low mountain forests with steeper topography, skid trails had more drastic effects than in lowland forests. Skid trails in low mountain areas showed a decrease in the C to N ratio of microbial biomass (MBC/MBN), as well as increased microbial (MBC/SOC) and enzyme activities leading to faster carbon turnover (lower C/N, EOC/EN) and increased CO2 losses (CO2/SOC) from the soil. The overall effects of the skid trails in lowland forests were small. On base‐poor soils, we found an increase in the MBC/MBN ratio, while skid trails in base‐rich lowland soils showed a reduction in CO2/SOC, suggesting a proportional increase in soil carbon storage. Regardless of region‐specific effects, the relative increase in the bulk density of the fine soil was identified as a ‘golden trait’ that determined the effects of skid trails on many soil parameters, as shown by negative correlations with SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC and CO2/SOC and positive ones with the activities of certain hydrolytic enzymes. Synthesis and applications: Our data clearly showed that carbon conversion processes and soil respiration leading to significant carbon and nutrient losses increased significantly on skid trails in low mountain regions with relatively steep slopes, which was in sharp contrast to lowland sites. The strong context dependence of our findings suggests that the mapping of soil conditions in terms of slope, substrate and moisture with high spatial resolution is mandatory to assess the vulnerability of sites to soil compaction by heavy machinery. Based on such vulnerability analysis, negative impacts can be minimised through the designation of permanently fixed skid trails, technical adaptation of vehicles (e.g. wide base tyres) as well as careful planning and timing of management operations that should be restricted to dry weather and soil moisture conditions or periods of frost. Zusammenfassung Rückegassen sind eine wichtige bewirtschaftungsbedingte Störung in Waldökosystemen gemäßigter Breiten. Ihre Auswirkungen auf bodenökologische Prozesse sind bisher nur unzureichend verstanden. In deutschen Wäldern machen Rückegassen 10%–20% der Waldfläche aus, welche durch die Befahrung mit schweren Maschinen potenziell von Bodenverdichtung betroffen ist. Auf 84 gepaarten Plots in vier mitteleuropäischen Waldtypen untersuchten wir systematisch den Einfluss von Rückegassen auf physikalische, chemische und mikrobiologische Bodenparameter. In Mittelgebirgswäldern mit einer steileren Topographie hatten Rückegassen drastischere Auswirkungen als in Wäldern im Flachland. Rückegassen in Mittelgebirgsregionen zeigten eine Abnahme des C/N‐Verhältnisses der mikrobiellen Biomasse (MBC/MBN) sowie erhöhte mikrobielle (MBC/SOC) und enzymatische Aktivitäten, was zu einem schnelleren Kohlenstoffumsatz (geringeres C/N, EOC/EN) und erhöhten CO2‐Verlusten (CO2/SOC) aus dem Boden führte. Die Auswirkungen von Rückegassen in Tieflandwäldern waren insgesamt gering. Auf basenarmen Böden wurde ein Anstieg des MBC/MBN‐Verhältnisses festgestellt, während Rückegassen in basenreichen Tieflandböden eine Verringerung des CO2/SOC‐Verhältnisses zeigten. Letzteres lässt auf einen proportionalen Anstieg der Kohlenstoffspeicherung im Boden schließen. Unabhängig von regionsspezifischen Effekten wurde die relative Erhöhung der Lagerungsdichte des Feinbodens als „golden trait “identifiziert, welche die Auswirkungen von Rückegassen auf viele Bodenparameter bestimmt (z.B. negative Korrelationen mit SOC, N, MBC, MBN, MBP, MBC/SOC und CO2/SOC sowie positive Korrelation mit den Aktivitäten bestimmter hydrolytischer Enzyme). Synthese und Anwendung: Unsere Daten zeigten eindrücklich, dass die Kohlenstoffumwandlungsprozesse und die Bodenatmung, welche zu erheblichen Kohlenstoff‐ und Nährstoffverlusten führen, auf Rückegassen in Mittelgebirgsregionen mit relativ steilen Hängen signifikant erhöht waren, was in starkem Kontrast zu Standorten im Flachland stand. Die starke Kontextabhängigkeit unserer Ergebnisse legt nahe, dass die kleinräumliche Erfassung der Bodenbedingungen in Bezug auf Neigung, Substrat und Feuchtigkeit zwingend erforderlich ist, um die Anfälligkeit von Standorten für Bodenverdichtung durch schwere Maschinen zu bewerten. Auf Grundlage solch einer Anfälligkeitsanalyse können die negativen Auswirkungen durch die Ausweisung von dauerhaft angelegten Rückegassen, die technische Anpassung der Fahrzeuge sowie eine sorgfältige Planung und zeitliche Abstimmung der Bewirtschaftungsmaßnahmen, welche auf trockene Wetter‐ und Bodenfeuchtebedingungen oder Frostperioden beschränkt sein sollten, minimiert werden. Our data clearly showed that carbon conversion processes and soil respiration leading to significant carbon and nutrient losses increased significantly on skid trails in low mountain regions with relatively steep slopes, which was in sharp contrast to lowland sites. The strong context dependence of our findings suggests that the mapping of soil conditions in terms of slope, substrate and moisture with high spatial resolution is mandatory to assess the vulnerability of sites to soil compaction by heavy machinery. Based on such vulnerability analysis, negative impacts can be minimised through the designation of permanently fixed skid trails, technical adaptation of vehicles (e.g. wide base tyres) as well as careful planning and timing of management operations that should be restricted to dry weather and soil moisture conditions or periods of frost.
Author	Santora, Lea Hortmann, Anja Meyer, Michael Fornfeist, Max Linnemann, Britta Schaper, Jens Jakob Klein‐Raufhake, Theresa Hölzel, Norbert Rentemeister, Katharina Wöllecke, Jens Elmer, Michael Hamer, Ute
Author_xml	– sequence: 1 givenname: Theresa orcidid: 0000-0003-3869-7344 surname: Klein‐Raufhake fullname: Klein‐Raufhake, Theresa email: t.klein‐raufhake@uni‐muenster.de organization: University of Münster – sequence: 2 givenname: Norbert surname: Hölzel fullname: Hölzel, Norbert organization: University of Münster – sequence: 3 givenname: Jens Jakob surname: Schaper fullname: Schaper, Jens Jakob organization: NABU Biological Station Münsterland – sequence: 4 givenname: Anja surname: Hortmann fullname: Hortmann, Anja organization: University of Münster – sequence: 5 givenname: Michael surname: Elmer fullname: Elmer, Michael organization: Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz Nordrhein‐Westfalen, FB IV, Team Waldnaturschutz – sequence: 6 givenname: Max surname: Fornfeist fullname: Fornfeist, Max organization: Landesbetrieb Wald und Holz Nordrhein‐Westfalen, FB IV, Team Waldnaturschutz – sequence: 7 givenname: Britta surname: Linnemann fullname: Linnemann, Britta organization: NABU Biological Station Münsterland – sequence: 8 givenname: Michael orcidid: 0000-0001-8888-2076 surname: Meyer fullname: Meyer, Michael organization: University of Münster – sequence: 9 givenname: Katharina surname: Rentemeister fullname: Rentemeister, Katharina organization: NABU Biological Station Münsterland – sequence: 10 givenname: Lea surname: Santora fullname: Santora, Lea organization: NABU Biological Station Münsterland – sequence: 11 givenname: Jens surname: Wöllecke fullname: Wöllecke, Jens organization: NABU Biological Station Münsterland – sequence: 12 givenname: Ute surname: Hamer fullname: Hamer, Ute organization: University of Münster
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Snippet	Skid trails are a major management‐induced disturbance in temperate forest ecosystems with considerable impact on soil ecological processes that are so far...
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SubjectTerms	Bulk density Carbon Carbon dioxide Carbon sequestration Ecosystem management Enzymatic activity Enzymes Forest ecosystems Forest management Forests Frost microbial biomass Microorganisms Mountain forests Mountain regions Mountainous areas Mountains nutrient cycling Nutrient loss Organic carbon Parameter identification skidding Soil analysis Soil chemistry Soil compaction Soil conditions Soil investigations Soil moisture Spatial discrimination Spatial resolution Substrates temperate forest Temperate forests Terrestrial ecosystems Tires Topsoil Trails
Title	Severity of topsoil compaction controls the impact of skid trails on soil ecological processes
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