Clinical Characteristics and Patterns of Immune Responses in COVID-19 Patients From a Rural Community Hospital
Background Although demographic and clinical factors such as age, certain comorbidities, and sex have been associated with COVID-19 outcomes, these studies were largely conducted in urban populations affiliated with large academic medical centers. There have been very few studies focusing on rural p...
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| Published in: | Curēus (Palo Alto, CA) Vol. 16; no. 6; p. e61600 |
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| Main Authors: | , , , , , , , |
| Format: | Journal Article |
| Language: | English |
| Published: |
United States
Cureus
03-06-2024
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| Subjects: | |
| Online Access: | Get full text |
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| Summary: | Background Although demographic and clinical factors such as age, certain comorbidities, and sex have been associated with COVID-19 outcomes, these studies were largely conducted in urban populations affiliated with large academic medical centers. There have been very few studies focusing on rural populations that also characterize broader changes in inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. Methodology A single-center study was conducted between June 2020 and March 2021 in Abilene, Texas, USA. Patients were included if they presented to the hospital for treatment of COVID-19, had extra biological materials from routine care available, and were between the ages of 0 to 110 years. There were no exclusion criteria. Patient characteristics, symptom presentation, and clinical laboratory results were extracted from electronic health records. Blood specimens were analyzed by protein microarray to quantitate 40 immunological biomarkers. Results A total of 122 patients were enrolled, of whom 81 (66%) were admitted to the general non-critical inpatient unit, 37 (30%) were admitted to the intensive or critical care units, and four (3.2%) were treated outpatient. Most hospitalized COVID-19 patients in this rural population were elderly, male, obese, and retired individuals. Predominant symptoms for non-critical patients were shortness of breath, fever, and fatigue. Ferritin levels for outpatient patients were lower on average than those in an inpatient setting and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were noted to be lower in non-critical and outpatient than those in the intensive care unit setting. Inflammatory biomarkers were positively correlated and consistent with inflammatory cascade. Interleukin (IL)-10 was positively correlated while platelet-derived growth factor was negatively correlated with inflammatory biomarkers. Patients ≥65 years had significantly higher levels of LDH and seven cytokines/chemokines (granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin IL-1b, IL-6, IL-10, IL-11, macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)-1d, and IL-8) while levels of five other immune molecules (intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase 2 (TIMP-2), IL-2, and IL-4) were significantly lower compared to those <65 years. Females had significantly higher levels of LDH and 10 cytokines/chemokines (GM-CSF, IL-1b, IL-6, IL-10, IL-11, IL-15, IL-16, MIP-1a, MIP-1d, and IL-8) while levels of TIMP-2 and IL-4 were significantly lower than male patients. Conclusions The clinical characteristics of this rural cohort of hospitalized patients differed somewhat from nationally reported data. The contributions of social, environmental, and healthcare access factors should be investigated. We identified age and sex-associated differences in immunological response markers that warrant further investigation to identify the underlying molecular mechanisms and impact on COVID-19 pathogenesis. |
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| Bibliography: | ObjectType-Article-1 SourceType-Scholarly Journals-1 ObjectType-Feature-2 content type line 23 |
| ISSN: | 2168-8184 2168-8184 |
| DOI: | 10.7759/cureus.61600 |